Working Directly With the Families of Your Students Is Imperative to Maximizing Their Achievement.

Abstract

The COVID-19 crunch has forced pedagogy systems worldwide to find alternatives to face-to-face instruction. Equally a upshot, online teaching and learning have been used by teachers and students on an unprecedented scale. Since lockdowns – either massive or localised - may be needed again in the future to reply to new waves of the infection until a vaccine becomes available, it is of utmost importance for governments to identify which policies tin maximise the effectiveness of online learning. This policy brief examines the role of students' attitudes towards learning in maximising the potential of online schooling when regular face-to-face instruction cannot take place. Since parents and teachers play a fundamental part in supporting students to develop these crucial attitudes, specially in the current state of affairs, targeted policy interventions should exist designed with the aim of reducing the burden on parents and assistance teachers and schools make the near of digital learning.

Key findings and recommendations:

The current COVID-19 crisis has obliged most didactics systems to adopt alternatives to face-to-face teaching and learning. Many education systems moved activities online, to allow education to continue despite schoolhouse closures.
Because the alternative of no schooling, online schooling has been an important tool to sustain skills development during schoolhouse closures. That being said, there are notwithstanding concerns that online learning may have been a sub-optimal substitute for confront-to-face instruction, especially so in the absence of universal access to infrastructure (hardware and software) and lack of adequate grooming among teachers and students for the unique demands that online instruction learning pose.
Developing potent attitudes towards learning tin can help students overcome some of the potential challenges posed by online learning such every bit, for example, remaining focused during online classes or maintaining sufficient motivation. They are also crucial in supporting students using information and communications engineering (ICT) finer and making the about of new technologies for learning. Positive attitudes towards learning, self-regulation and intrinsic motivation to larn play an important role in improving functioning at school in full general, only may exist especially important should online learning proceed.
Students' attitudes and dispositions are influenced to a dandy degree by the support they receive from families and teachers and by the function models they are exposed to. Dissimilar forms of support from families and teachers, including parental emotional back up and teacher enthusiasm, are plant to exist important for the development of positive attitudes towards learning and can ensure that students acquire the attitudes and dispositions that can maximise their power to make the most of online learning opportunities. Yet, some families and teachers may struggle to provide such support - particularly during the COVID-19 crisis - because of a lack of time, insufficient digital skills or lack of curricular guidelines.
Education systems should aim to strengthen engagement betwixt schools and parents in order to meliorate information and guidance to parents on effective practices for supporting their children's learning. At the same time, teachers need support to incorporate technology effectively into their teaching practices and methods and assistance students overcome some of the difficulties that are associated with this class of learning surround. Supporting teachers' grooming nigh the employ of digital resources for pedagogical practice and promoting pedagogy practices adjusted to this context is key to ensure that ICT is leveraged effectively.

As a response to the COVID-19 crisis, many countries around the globe airtight schools, colleges and universities to halt the spread of the virus. According to data from UNESCO, the peak in school closures was registered at the beginning of April 2020, when around 1.6 billion learners were affected across 194 countries, accounting for more than 90% of total enrolled learners (UNESCO, 2020[ane]). The sudden closure of schools meant that education policy makers, school principals and teachers had to find alternatives to contiguous instruction in lodge to guarantee children's right to education. Many systems have adopted online teaching (and learning) on an unprecedented scale, oft in combination with widespread remote learning materials such as idiot box or radio. Until effective vaccines or therapeutics for the novel Coronavirus become bachelor, information technology is likely that schooling may continue to exist disrupted. Even if the worst instance scenario of a second wave of the outbreak were non to materialise, localised and temporary school closures may still be needed to contain transmission of COVID-19. For instance, children coming in contact with infected individuals may be required to self-isolate and the lack of adequate spaces for them to nourish classes or of qualified educators to be deployed in those circumstances will force certain schools to adopt blended models to guarantee social distancing. This has already been the example, for example, in Germany, where, only ii weeks afterwards re-opening, some schools were closed again over Coronavirus infections. Against this uncertain backdrop, information technology is therefore of import to identify which policies tin maximise the effectiveness of online teaching and learning.

In spite of being a desirable option compared to no schooling – which would accept caused major interruptions in student learning with possible long-lasting consequences for the afflicted cohorts (Burgess, 2020[2]; Hanushek and Woessmann, 2020[3]) - the sudden switch to using digital instruction may accept led to sub-optimal results if compared to a business as usual in-presence instruction, equally teachers, students and schools all had to unexpectedly suit to a novel situation. This policy cursory takes stock of some of the difficulties encountered past students, teachers and schools while adapting to online learning in order to sympathize how remote schooling can be improved further, should online learning get necessary to forbid widespread transmission.

The start concern which has arisen is that online learning is just available to children that have access to a broadband connection at home that is fast enough to back up online learning. While network operators have mainly been successful to maintain services and efficiently employ pre-existing capacity during phases of lockdown (OECD, 2020[4]), at that place are still geographical areas and population groups that are underserved, especially in rural and remote areas and among low-income groups. For example, in many OECD countries, fewer than half of rural households are located in areas where fixed broadband at sufficient speeds is available. In add-on, children demand to take access to devices such as computers and the necessary software to participate in online learning activities, which is often a claiming for lower‑income households.

For those students that are connected, the second business organisation is that certain students take not been able to receive a sufficient number of hours of instruction. For example, in the United Kingdom, 71% of state schoolhouse children received no or less than ane daily online lesson (Dark-green, 2020[5]), while in Deutschland only half-dozen% of students had online lessons on a daily basis and more than than half had them less than once a week (Woessmann et al., 2020[6]). Some economists have estimated that, every bit a consequence of this, students in the United States will resume their schooling in the autumn of 2020 with roughly 70% of the learning gains relative to a typical school year on average and that the learning gains might be fifty-fifty smaller in mathematics, amounting to just 50% (Kuhfeld and Tarasawa, 2020[vii]). It is therefore important for education policy-makers to empathise which factors take prevented certain children from receiving sufficient instruction – among them, in addition to the lack of infrastructure, the absence of adequate preparation in schools and among teachers, as well as, in some cases, the lack of curriculum guidelines. These elements have also determined a swell variation, across schools and countries, in the quality of online learning, raising the business organisation that disparities in educational outcomes across socioeconomic groups may exist reinforced in the absence of corrective measures. For example, in the United States, over one‑third of students have been completely excluded from online learning, particularly in schools with large shares of low-income students, while elite individual schools experienced almost total attendance (The Economist, 2020[8]; Khazan, 2020[9]). Similarly, evidence from England (United Kingdom) suggests that children from meliorate-off families spent 30% more fourth dimension on home learning than those from poorer families during the lockdown, and their parents reported feeling more than able to support them than socio-economically disadvantaged parents, while students from richer schools had access to more individualised resource (such as online tutoring or chats with teachers) (IFS, 2020[x]) .

Further concerns relate to the fact that the effectiveness of online learning might take been hindered, in some cases, past the lack of bones digital skills among certain students and teachers, making them unprepared to adjust to the new state of affairs so abruptly (OECD, 2020[11]). For example, descriptive show based on PISA 2018 shows that there were major differences across countries and socio-economic groups in the utilise of technology for schoolwork before the pandemic among 15-year-olds, raising the concern that students who were less experienced might be those suffering the most from the shock caused past online learning.

Figure 1. Mean Index of ICT use outside of school for schoolwork, by socio-economic groups

Figure 1 indicates that, in almost all countries, students from low socio-economical backgrounds made less frequent use of digital technologies compared to their peers from high socio-economic backgrounds before the pandemic in 2018. Disparities were particularly striking in Australia, United mexican states, South Korea and the United States. Similar differences are observed between students from public and private schools, with the latter making more frequent utilise of digital technologies for schoolwork (OECD, Forthcoming[12]).

In addition, some teachers might likewise have struggled to adapt to online pedagogy so abruptly due to a lack of adequate digital skills, possibly contributing to a great heterogeneity in the quality of online instruction beyond schools. An antecedent outcome in the literature is in fact that the effectiveness of ICT for learning purposes depends considerably on the digital competencies of teachers and on whether engineering science is incorporated into pedagogical practices (OECD, 2010[xiii]) in an effective manner (meet Box 1).

Box 1. Impact of digital learning on students' performance: What do we know?

While in recent years governments of many countries take been investing increasing resources to raise the availability of digital devices across schools and households, some bookish literature has tried to establish the mechanisms through which the use of digital devices affects students' learning. What has emerged is that simply providing admission or using digital technologies does not automatically pb to better academic results (Escueta et al., 2017[14]). For instance, Angrist and Lavy (2002[15]) assessed the impact of Israel's Tomorrow-98 plan, which was launched in the mid-90s to provide schools with computers and teachers with training for estimator-aided instruction. They document a negative relationship between the programme-induced apply of computers and maths scores. Similar findings come from the evaluation of a Dutch subsidy scheme for computers and software in schools, which had a negative touch on student achievement in language, arithmetic and data processing (Leuven et al., 2007[16]). Other studies have plant negligible effects of ICT use. In 2008, a large scale experiment was launched in Italy to provide 156 classes with large grants to buy ICT: despite its huge price – in the order of EUR 1 500 per student – the Cl@ssi2.0 programme was found to have only a negligible outcome on student achievements (Checchi, Rettore and Girardi, 2015[17]). Similarly, a field experiment involving the provision of complimentary computers to low-income schoolchildren for habitation use in the US state of California did not meliorate educational outcomes (Fairlie and Robinson, 2013[18]). Such negative or negligible effects have been mainly attributed to uses of ICT that substitute for more constructive traditional instruction (Bulman and Fairlie, 2016[19]): for example, a written report suggests that classroom computers are beneficial to students' achievements when used to look up information only detrimental when used to practice skills and procedures (Falck, Mang and Woessmann, 2018[20]). Other studies illustrate that digital tools are beneficial to student learning when they are used to complement traditional teaching, e.g. extending report fourth dimension and enhancing student motivation (Fleischer, 2012[21]; Peterson et al., 2018[22])

Based on this knowledge, efforts should be made by governments and schoolhouse principals to support teachers in incorporating online tools effectively into their instruction practices, e.g. past fostering teachers' pedagogies aimed at providing students with guidance and motivation towards active learning (Peterson et al., 2018[22]). Pedagogical practices should also ensure that the utilize of digital technologies and online tools corresponds to learners' needs, prior competencies and digital literacy and teachers should act as mentors to guide students and assist them remain focused on the learning elements of tasks (OECD, 2019[23]).

However, effective pedagogical practices and ease with digital tools are necessary merely non sufficient conditions to ensure the effectiveness of online teaching and learning. Students' attitudes towards learning are strong drivers of their academic achievements in regular times. Indeed, these may be crucial in sustaining students' motivation and active learning in times of home schooling. The following section of this brief focuses on how the development of positive attitudes towards learning can promote effective skills evolution in a digital environs. Information technology likewise identifies how positive learning attitudes can be all-time promoted past parental emotional back up and instructor enthusiasm.

Positive learning attitudes tin improve performance at school and aid students keep their motivation when schools are airtight

Recently, in that location has been increasing attention devoted to sustaining the development of different non-cognitive skills amidst students – e.1000. personality traits, goals and motivation – since they have been found to have direct positive effects on several socio-economic outcomes, including wages, schooling and performance in achievement tests. Show indicates that these skills are malleable and amenable to policy intervention and classroom exercise (Heckman et al., 2014[24]).

This section will focus on six learning attitudes:

students' ambition to learn and understand as much every bit possible (ambitious learning goals);
the relevance students aspect to school for their future working careers (value of school);
the sense of belonging to the schoolhouse community (sense of belonging);
students' commitment to work hard and to improve performance (motivation to master tasks);
students' ability to overcome difficulties on their own (self-efficacy);
the satisfaction students get from learning and reading (enjoyment of reading).

Evidence from the OECD Skills Outlook 2021 (OECD, Forthcoming[12]) shows that all the in a higher place-mentioned attitudes are particularly of import for students' success1 in that they are positively associated to their performance in reading, mathematics and science. While many of these attitudes are adult at early stages of one's learning path, they are very likely to be carried over in adulthood, making individuals more than resilient to changing societies and more disposed to life-long learning (OECD, Forthcoming[12]; Tuckett and Field, 2016[25]). Learning attitudes are not just innate and their development is highly influenced by schooling, parental care and investments, with high risk of major inequalities across socio-economic groups. Data show, for instance, that in a vast bulk of OECD countries, socio-economically advantaged students are significantly more than likely to have ambitious learning goals as compared to disadvantaged students (Figure 2). This eventually affects also their proficiency and academic performance.

Figure 2. Mean value of ambitious learning goals, for advantaged vs. disadvantaged students

While positive attitudes towards learning are important drivers of students' educational attainments during normal times, they are probable to be even more important in the electric current context, because of the unique challenges posed past online learning: online learning requires students to rely on intrinsic motivation and self-directed learning. Developing potent learning attitudes, for instance, is fundamental if pupils are to remain focused and motivated in hard learning environments and could therefore be key to accost the chief difficulties that students may encounter again in the near future, if a second wave of school closures were to materialise before the health crisis has been fully addressed.

Effigy 3 provides indication of the importance of attitudes for learning when this learning is mediated past digital technologies past comparing the association betwixt a very frequent use of ICT for schoolwork and students' performance in reading amidst students who are, respectively, in the summit and bottom quartiles of each learning attitude. Results show that, amid students who make a very frequent employ of ICT for schoolwork, those with stronger attitudes towards learning achieve significantly college proficiency levels than their peers with less positive attitudes.2 Further analyses shows that, while positive attitudes tend to benign to students' educational achievements in full general, this positive clan is even stronger when restricting the sample to high ICT users, suggesting that learning attitudes tin can be key to incorporate technologies and online tools effectively into learning. When giving closer consideration to the office of different learning attitudes, data testify that students' dispositions to develop ambitious learning goals and to attribute high value to school may exist particularly important for maximining the issue of online learning. For instance, in Ireland, among students making an all-encompassing use of ICT for schoolwork, those with strong ambitious learning goals score 32 points more than in reading tests compared to their peers lacking ambitious goals.3

Figure 3. Association between learning attitudes and reading performance among students making intensive use of ICT outside of school for schoolwork

Attitudes and dispositions toward learning are important drivers of students' educational achievements. In the context of online learning, they can help students to incorporate more than efficiently digital technologies and online tools into the learning process.

Families and teachers: Tin they provide effective support to digital learning?

Learning attitudes are rooted in the support that students receive from teachers and families. Analyses based on PISA 2018 in the OECD Skills Outlook 2021 (OECD, Forthcoming[12]) shed light on the crucial part played by both teacher practices and parental emotional support equally important drivers of the evolution of attitudes. Unlike forms of back up can be incentivised and shaped past effective policy intervention, generally, simply fifty-fifty more so in the boggling circumstances related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, information technology is important to empathise which are the near suitable forms of support that teachers and families can embrace to sustain the digital learning process of children.

Figure 4. Association of learning attitudes and different forms of support by parents and teachers

Figure 4 shows that students display more positive attitudes and dispositions towards learning when they do good from more than parental emotional support.4 Parental emotional support matters for most attitudes and displays a strong association with students' self-efficacy. More specifically, the forms of emotional support that are institute to be most beneficial are when parents encourage their children to exist confident and when they back up their children's educational efforts and achievements (OECD, Forthcoming[12]). On the teachers' side, the assay suggests that education environments where teachers are able to convey enthusiasm towards the content of their instruction support the evolution of positive learning attitudes in students, in particular aggressive learning goals, motivation to master tasks, self-efficacy and enjoyment of reading. The importance of teacher enthusiasm as a driving factor of student learning has been shown extensively in the literature: for instance, enthusiastic teachers aid instill in their students positive bailiwick-related affective experiences and a sense of the personal importance of the subject (Keller et al., 2014[26]) and they motivate and inspire students, increasing the productive fourth dimension they spend on learning tasks (Keller et al., 2015[27]; Hoidn and Kärkkäinen, 2014[28]; Kunter et al., 2013[29]).

To requite an indication of the benefits brought near by parental and teachers' back up to students' academic achievements, Figure 5 focusing on students making intensive use of ICT outside of school for schoolwork, compares operation in reading between those who report to accept received, respectively, very high and very low levels of support5 – both from families and from teachers. This evidence, based on PISA 2018, shows that several forms of support tin can be particularly effective in enhancing student learning. For example, among high ICT users, pupils who receive very loftier emotional back up from parents or whose teachers are more predisposed to support them and stimulate their reading tend to perform significantly meliorate in all subjects assessed in PISA. Parental emotional back up is especially constructive: for case, in the Slovak Democracy, students who utilize ICT very ofttimes and who receive very high back up from families score on average 23 points more than their peers with less back up from families. Receiving strong emotional support from parents is similarly effective in some other countries, such as Austria and Slovenia.

Figure 5. Association between students' performance in reading and support from families and teachers among students making intensive use of ICT outside of school for schoolwork

This bear witness suggests that parents tin play a crucial office during home schooling such equally ensuring that their children follow the curriculum and supporting their children emotionally to sustain their motivation and ambitious goals in a situation where they might easily exist discouraged from learning autonomously, as well due to the lack of peer effects. Parental involvement during this stage could significantly aid students to accost the main challenges posed by online learning, spurring their active and autonomous learning. Still, many obstacles may hinder an effective date past parents: for instance, they might struggle to engage in their children's schoolwork while combining their job obligations or other family obligations - a claiming that may be especially acute for single parents. Parents might also feel uncapable of supporting them due to lack of digital skills, familiarity with the content of their children's schoolwork or negative attitudes towards the material. For example, differences in educational levels of parents might give rise to further inequalities in educational attainments and this should therefore exist of corking concern for policy-makers. A recent study from holland shows, for instance, that less educated parents have been less supportive of their children efforts during the lockdown and that this has been partly driven by the fact that they were feeling less capable to help them (Bol, 2020[30]). Parents with low education might as well hold negative attitudes towards learning themselves, thus underestimating the importance of their back up for their children's skill development and, every bit result, help them less than highly educated parents. Another concern is that gender differences in math attitudes and achievements can be worsened during home schooling, when many children are supported mainly by their mothers in their schoolwork (Del Boca et al., 2020[31]; Farré and González, 2020[32]; Sevilla and Smith, 2020[33]). What is known is that many women have high levels of mathematics anxiety and previous research indicates that girls may be peculiarly sensitive to internalising mathematics anxiety when exposed to it from female adult figures (Beilock et al., 2010[34]). It is therefore crucial for governments and schools to take immediate actions in guild to tackle these issues and foster parental involvement.

Together with families, teachers play a primal role in helping students to make a more beneficial use of digital learning. In particular, the almost effective practices relate to how teachers stimulate reading in students (due east.g. the teacher poses questions that motivate students to participate actively or shows students how the information in texts builds on what they already know) as well every bit more general instructor support (due east.g. when the teacher shows interest in every student's learning, continues educational activity until all the students sympathise and provides extra-help when students need it) and directed-instruction (e.thou. the teacher sets clear goals for students' learning, asks questions to cheque whether students understand the cloth, presents summary of previous classes at the kickoff of each lesson). Similarly to parental emotional back up, these teacher practices can significantly improve students' performance at school and might exist particularly relevant in this context, helping students to remain focused on their learning tasks and to keep their motivation and dispositions to learning. To requite an example, in Australia, among students that rely extensively on ICT for schoolwork, those whose teachers are more than able to stimulate their reading score on average 17 points more than their peers with lower support from teachers. Similar results are observed for some other countries, such as Australia and Switzerland.

If learning attitudes are central drivers of students' (online) learning achievements, the main challenge facing governments is therefore how to promote the development of those attitudes and how to support teachers and parents in strengthening them. Some countries take already implemented policies in this direction. These are discussed in the side by side section.

Policies to back up families and teachers

The analysis presented and then far has highlighted the importance of both families and teachers in supporting students' learning and motivation, in regular times but even more so during school closures. It is therefore of import for governments to facilitate their effective engagement. Finding constructive ways for working parents to provide childcare and support to their children in schoolwork while combining their jobs obligations is an important challenge that many governments are attempting to address. Almost OECD countries accept already put in place interventions in this direction by extending, for instance, family leave opportunities. In Slovenia working parents who are unable to reconcile work and family unit obligations are entitled to up to three-months paid leave, paid at eighty% of their earnings by the government. Similarly, in Germany parents with children under 12 years of age are entitled to six weeks paid leave, paid at 67% of earnings up to a ceiling of EUR 2 016 per month. In the United States, according to the Families First Coronavirus Response Deed, parents with children nether xviii years of age whose school has closed are entitled to up to 12 weeks paid family unit leave, paid at 2-thirds of earnings, up to a limit of USD 200 per twenty-four hours and USD 12 000 over the duration. Other countries take put in identify similar provisions – due east.grand. Canada, France, Italian republic, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, etc. - and will proceed them whilst schools remain closed. Measures of this sort are crucial to spur parental involvement in their children's learning activities while preserving their jobs.

The provision of information to parents on how to finer support their children's learning can likewise improve educational outcomes, both during a lockdown and in normal times. For example, Wide Open up Schoolhouse, a spider web platform created in the United States, offers resources for educators and families for students from preschool to upper secondary education. Function of these resources aim to develop disciplinary technical skills as well as creativity, critical thinking or social-emotional skills, while other resources support families, e.yard. past helping lower income families get devices and better broadband or by providing them with guidance about social-emotional wellbeing. Beyond offering access to curated resources, the platform also suggests a daily schedule to help students and families have a good balance of activities (Vincent-Lancrin, 2020[35]).

Didactics systems tin likewise aim to strengthen schoolhouse-parent date in order to provide appropriate data and guidance to parents on effective practices for supporting their children'south learning. An example from Latvia is the Educational Tv set Channel Tava Klase, which delivers loftier-quality educational textile tailored for dissimilar age groups and provides a style for parents to connect with schools (van der Vlies, 2020[36]). Every bit an indicator of its success, a contempo survey of parents, students and teachers prove that there is a strong positive association betwixt the clarity of communications between schools and parents, and parents' confidence that their children would reach their learning goals (Burns, 2020[37]).

Teachers also need support to rapidly arrange their instruction practices to altitude learning, whether regular or advertising hoc. In this respect, France has mobilised its network of local digital education advisers to support the transition from face-to-face to distant learning. The network of digital education advisers has supported both teachers and school principals - by providing them with online training virtually the availability and use of digital resources for pedagogical practice and by promoting education practices adjusted to educational continuity and progressive school re-opening – and students – by working with local regime to lend and deliver computers and learning worksheets to all students (Vincent-Lancrin, 2020[38]). Other countries take decided to complement schooling resource and teachers' efforts in delivering high-quality online classes by also providing home schooling broadcast on tv or social networks. As an example, in the United Kingdom, the BBC has started to collaborate with teachers and educational experts and provides daily lessons to pupils in twelvemonth 1 to x, including videos and interactive activities aimed at keeping up students' motivation and at stimulating their socio-emotional skills (Van Lieshout, 2020[39]).

Conclusions

The current COVID-19 crisis has forced many countries to close schools, colleges and universities to halt the spread of the virus. Due to the long-lasting negative consequences that schoolhouse closures would take on skill accumulation, many teaching systems moved apace online on an unprecedented scale. Since lockdowns may exist introduced once again in the time to come until effective vaccines or therapeutics become bachelor, it is of utmost importance for governments to reflect on the primary difficulties that students, parents, teachers and school principals take encountered in adapting to this phase of massive online learning and intervene to better harness the potential of online learning. For example, they should first expand infrastructure, ensuring that nobody is excluded from online lessons, and back up students and teachers to use online tools and technologies in an effective manner.

Based on forthcoming analysis in the Skills Outlook 2021, this policy brief illustrates that students' attitudes and dispositions to learning, such as ambition or motivation, are important drivers of their educational achievements and can help ensure that online learning is as constructive as possible. In add-on, this cursory showed that families and teachers play a crucial role in guiding children through the challenges of dwelling house learning: parents can provide emotional and learning back up to their children, while teachers can act as mentors, encouraging active learning and motivation and checking that nobody falls backside. Such interventions tin can considerably contribute to making online learning more than effective. Given the crucial role that families and teachers play in the context of school closures, governments can spur their effective date by, for example, expanding family leave opportunities and by strengthening schoolhouse-parents communication.

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[33] Sevilla, A. and S. Smith (2020), "Baby steps: The Gender Division of childcare after COVID19", COVID Economics: Vetted and Existent-Fourth dimension Papers, Vol. 23.

[8] The Economist (2020), Endmost schools for covid-19 does lifelong harm and widens inequality.

[25] Tuckett, A. and J. Field (2016), Factors and motivations affecting attitudes towards and propensity to larn through the life class, Government Office for Science.

[i] UNESCO (2020), COVID-19 Educational Disruption and Response, https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse/.

[36] van der Vlies, R. (2020), Republic of latvia: Tava klase (Your class), OECD Publishing, Paris.

[39] Van Lieshout, K. (2020), United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland: BBC Bitesize, OECD Publishing, Paris.

[38] Vincent-Lancrin, S. (2020), France: Réseau de délégués académiques numériques (Network of digital education advisers), OECD Publishing, Paris.

[35] Vincent-Lancrin, S. (2020), "United States: Broad Open School", Educational activity continuity.

[6] Woessmann, L. et al. (2020), Die Schulkinder Die Zeit Der Schulschließungen Verbracht, Und Welche Bildungsmaßnahmen Befürworten Die Deutschen?.

Notes

← 1. Other previous evidence is contained for example in (Behncke, 2009[41]), (Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua, 2006[forty]).

← 2. Results hold when accounting for students' form compared to modal class in the country and type of plan (full general, pre-vocational, vocational), mitigating the business organisation that results might be driven by school characteristics.

← 3. Coordinating results are found for the other subjects assessed in PISA, i.eastward. science and mathematics.

← iv. Parental emotional back up is an index synthetic in PISA grouping the following forms of back up embraced past parents: parents support their children's educational efforts and achievements, they support their children when they are facing difficulties and they encourage them to be confident.

← v. High and low levels of support have been defined based on the values taken past the indices of parental emotional support and teacher practices, constructed in PISA. More than specifically, students receiving low/high support are those in the bottom/elevation quartile of the corresponding alphabetize.

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